Lithium is a metal that is soft, reactive, and silver in appearance. It can be found naturally in combination with other elements in soil, rock, and seawater. Its chemical properties make lithium a useful component of batteries. It can be used to make lithium metal batteries, which are disposable batteries commonly used to power household electronics, available in sizes like AAA, AA, and 9V. It can also be used to make lithium-ion batteries, which are rechargeable batteries used to charge electronics like laptops and electric vehicles. Lithium-ion batteries have been widely available for these kinds of uses since 1991.

The energy storage ability of lithium-ion batteries also has important industrial uses. When intermittent renewable energy sources like sunlight or wind generate energy, that energy can be efficiently stored in lithium-ion batteries and later used when the sunlight or wind are not available. However, lithium-ion batteries can pose a threat to public safety. Damage to these batteries can cause them to overheat and cause fires or explosions. The gases released from these chemical reactions are themselves flammable and toxic to human health. This means that overheating of lithium-ion batteries isn’t just dangerous because it can start a fire, but also because that fire releases toxic chemicals from the batteries into the surrounding air.

The Moss Landing Power Plant operated by Vistra Energy Corporation in Moss Landing, California is one of the largest battery energy storage systems in the world. It uses lithium-ion batteries to store energy and release it as needed to California’s grid to help utility companies provide reliable, stable energy. On January 16, 2025 the power plant caught on fire, with millions of lithium-ion batteries burning and thousands of tons of chemicals released into the air. These chemicals included metals like lithium, cobalt, and nickel, as well as other toxins like hydrogen fluoride, polyvinyl chloride, and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). An evacuation order was made that evening, but was lifted the next day. State and federal agencies conducted air monitoring and soil testing and deemed the area safe after a few days. Local residents, however, reported concerns and health effects from this fire. They felt that government testing was inadequate to fully capture the extent of contamination from the toxic chemicals being released into the air. In response, the community formed the group Never Again Moss Landing to provide outreach, education, and advocacy in order to protect public health and the environment. They are collaborating directly with scientists to conduct widespread community science efforts to document and demonstrate the areawide contamination from this battery fire. Their continued research and advocacy efforts are keeping the community informed in the face of inadequate government action.

Nitrogen oxides are a group of gaseous chemicals. The two most relevant nitrogen oxides are nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide, which are often collectively referred to as NO_x. NO_x are brown gases that are formed in a variety of processes. They are released from the combustion of fossil fuels, such as the burning of coal, oil, natural gas, and the use of motor vehicles. They can also be formed during metalworking activities like welding and electroplating. NO_x can also be intentionally formed for use in producing other chemicals, dyes, and explosives.

Once released into the air, NO_x can travel long distances from their original source, impacting human health and the environment across large geographic areas. Nitrogen dioxide can react with other chemicals in the environment to produce nitric acid, which is one of the main components of acid rain. NO_x can also react with other chemicals in the environment to produce ozone, which contributes to the greenhouse effect and planetary warming.

Breathing NO_x can have adverse health effects. People who work in or live near power plants and highways are the most likely to be exposed to outdoor air contaminated with NO_x. Using wood-burning fireplaces, kerosene heaters, or gas stoves can also expose people to NO_x in the air in their homes. NO_x can also be found in tobacco smoke. Breathing low levels of NO_x can cause irritation of the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs. This can lead to shortness of breath, fatigue, nausea, and buildup of fluid in the lungs. Exposure can worsen asthma and might cause asthma if the exposure lasts for a long time. Breathing high levels of NO_x can cause muscle spasms, tissue swelling, reduced flow of oxygen in the body, and even death. There is some evidence that exposure is also associated with heart disease and diabetes. In studies of laboratory animals, NO_x exposure during pregnancy caused defects in development of the fetus. The variety of short- and long-term health effects of NO_x exposure, as well as the serious environmental impacts, makes clear that NO_x pose significant danger to people and the planet.