Methylene chloride (also known as dichloromethane) is a manmade chemical that is a clear liquid with a faintly sweet smell. It is used as an industrial solvent and an ingredient in paint strippers, so it is often used in commercial and do-it-yourself home improvement projects. Methylene chloride dissolves into the air, so the primary way people can be exposed to it is by breathing contaminated air. Because methylene chloride-containing products, like paint strippers, are often used in indoor spaces with little ventilation, people can easily be exposed to high levels of it. Inhaling methylene chloride causes brain dysfunction – confusion, inattentiveness, dizziness, numbness in the extremities, and even death. The World Health Organization, US Department of Health and Human Services, and US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) all consider methylene chloride to likely cause cancer. The EPA estimates that 32,000 workers and 1.3 million consumers are exposed to methylene chloride every year.

Because of the dangers of methylene chloride, consumer advocacy groups like Mind the Store spent years fighting against its use. They called on national hardware store chains to stop selling these products and for the EPA to ban use of methylene chloride. In 2019 the EPA finally banned consumer use and sales of methylene chloride-containing products, but continued to allow them to be sold in commercial sales to professionals. While this will surely protect some people from methylene chloride exposure, advocates point out that thousands of construction and home improvement workers remain unprotected by this regulation – they are unlikely to have any input into whether or not their employers buy methylene chloride-containing products, so they are unable to keep themselves safe if they want to keep their jobs. Furthermore, many of these workers are Latinx or Asian Americans who may not be given training or warnings when using methylene chloride in languages they understand. In fact, one of the workers who died from methylene chloride in 2017 and whose death galvanized the EPA to propose regulation was from El Salvador and spoke limited English. When it comes to a chemical as dangerous and deadly as methylene chloride, much more must be done to ban its use and protect the health of workers who don’t have the power to protect themselves.

Naphthalene is a solid chemical that easily evaporates. It is commonly found in coal, mothballs, and the manufacturing of polyvinyl chloride. Manufacturing, industrial releases, improper disposal of industrial waste, and consumer use can release naphthalene into the environment. Once released, naphthalene can evaporate into the surrounding air, dissolve in water, and stick to soil. Volatile organic compounds like naphthalene can adhere to particulates and travel with them through the environment. Breathing contaminated air, drinking contaminated water, or touching contaminated soil can expose people to naphthalene.

Naphthalene exposure can cause dizziness, confusion, nausea, and vomiting. It can also kill red blood cells, causing anemia. Studies in animals have shown that breathing naphthalene-contaminated air can cause nose and lung tumors. Because of this, the US Department of Health and Human Services and the International Agency for Research on Cancer have both concluded that naphthalene likely causes cancer in humans.

In North Birmingham, Alabama, the Greater-Birmingham Alliance to Stop Pollution (GASP) is fighting to improve air quality and protect residents’ health. Locally, the group People Against Neighborhood Industrial Contamination (PANIC) fights to bring residents relief from industrial contamination. Multiple rounds of outdoor air testing in 2019 and 2020 found high levels of naphthalene at several locations in the community. These levels were many times higher than the threshold at which the US Environmental Protection Agency says cleanup and remediation must occur to protect people from cancer. This means that the naphthalene in the North Birmingham air poses a serious risk of causing cancer to the people who breathe it. GASP is fighting for clean air free of chemicals like naphthalene through education and advocacy. CHEJ is working with GASP and PANIC to help them raise awareness and achieve clean air that is safe to breathe.

1,4-dioxane is a clear liquid used in chemical manufacturing for industrial, consumer, and military purposes. During manufacturing or improper waste disposal 1,4-dioxane can be released into the environment. While it breaks down in air and doesn’t stick to soil, 1,4-dioxane is stable in water and can remain there for a long time. It can even accumulate in fish and plants that live in contaminated water. Eating these contaminated foods and drinking contaminated water are common ways people are exposed to 1,4-dioxane. Bathing in contaminated water can also cause 1,4-dioxane to evaporate into the air and be inhaled. Through its use in the manufacturing process, 1,4-dioxane often ends up being present in trace amounts in consumer products such as detergents, shampoos, and cosmetics. 1,4-dioxane present in these products can be absorbed through the skin.

Exposure to low levels of 1,4-dioxane can cause mild irritation to the eyes, nose, throat, or skin. Regardless of the route of exposure, high levels can cause kidney and liver damage as well as death. While there is little information about if 1,4-dioxane causes cancer in humans, animal studies have found that long-term exposure results in cancer, especially liver cancer. For this reason, the US Department of Health and Human Services believes that 1,4-dioxane likely causes cancer in humans.

In 2002, The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) told water utilities across the country that 1,4-dioxane was being detected at many superfund sites. Subsequent testing in Arizona determined that it was present in groundwater pumped to the Tucson Airport Remediation Project (TARP) water treatment plant, but it is unclear how long this contamination had been going on. Sampling from wells around the treatment plant found a wide range of 1,4-dioxane levels, with some having concentrations 35 times the EPA’s health advisory level. It wasn’t until 2014 that a treatment facility removing 1,4-dioxane from the water became operational, meaning Tucson residents were at risk for at least 12 years. Community leaders have been fighting for answers: Who was exposed? For how long were they exposed? What will be done to identify and help people who are sick? CHEJ provided organizing and technical assistance to Environmental Justice Task Force in Tucson who organized around this issue. While Tucson Water says the TARP water treatment plant no longer has 1,4-dioxane contamination, in 2018 it was reported that a different class of dangerous chemicals, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), were detected in water at this site. This illustrates that our current acceptance of the improper use, disposal, and remediation of harmful chemicals will continually present dangers to residents until people’s health is prioritized.

Camp Lejeune is a US Marine Corps base established in 1942 in Jacksonville, North Carolina. In 1982 the Marine Corps found that drinking water from distribution plants serving the majority of the base was contaminated with volatile organic compounds. This contamination came from leaking storage tanks, poor industrial waste disposal, and a dry cleaning firm. The main contaminants were trichloroethylene (TCE) and perchloroethylene (PCE). TCE exposure is known to cause kidney cancer, lymphoma, and cardiac defects, and it is also linked to liver cancer, leukemia, and Parkinson’s disease. PCE exposure is known to cause bladder cancer and is linked to lymphoma and renal disease. Exposure to these chemicals may also be linked to infertility, miscarriage, and birth defects. At one of the water treatment plants in Camp Lejeune, TCE levels were 280 times higher than the current acceptable limit set by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). At another plant, PCE levels were 43 times higher than the current acceptable limit. While the most contaminated water wells were subsequently shut down, people living and working at Camp Lejeune were likely exposed to high levels of these toxins for decades. ATSDR estimates that residents were likely exposed to these toxins from 1957 to 1987. Even more concerning, the US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) says, “The exact duration and intensity of the exposure at Camp Lejeune are unknown. The geographic extent of contamination by specific chemicals also is unknown.” This means the number of people exposed at Camp Lejeune and the full extent of their health risks from this contamination are difficult to evaluate.

For years, the grassroots organization The Few, The Proud, The Forgotten has been advocating for those affected by the Camp Lejeune contamination. It provides information about potential health effects and raised questions about the Marine Corps’ official contamination timeline. Most importantly, it keeps the focus of this crisis on the people, spotlighting former service members and families facing devastating illnesses and death because of these toxins. By telling the stories of those affected, The Few, The Proud, The Forgotten makes sure we reckon with the harm that has been done to countless lives.

Through pressure from groups like The Few, The Proud, The Forgotten and US senators, in 2017 the VA created a “presumption of service connection” for eight health conditions associated with exposure to the toxins in the Camp Lejeune water supply. This means that for active duty military and National Guard members who served at the base for at least 30 days from 1953 to 1987 and develop any of these health conditions, the VA will presume that they are caused by the toxins at Camp Lejeune and provide them with disability benefits. The eight health conditions are: adult leukemia, aplastic anemia and other myelodysplastic syndromes, bladder cancer, kidney cancer, liver cancer, multiple myeloma, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and Parkinson’s disease.

The situation at Camp Lejeune is but one example of contamination at military bases that has affected not just the soldiers on the base and their families, but also civilians who live nearby. The USEPA has listed as many as 130 military sites as candidate Superfund sites with 22 on the Superfund list. While the health benefits provided at Camp Lejeune are a good first step, they don’t do anything to keep service members safe. More needs to be done such as advocating for proactive measures like stricter waste disposal regulations, environmental monitoring, and biomonitoring, to make sure people are protected. It isn’t enough to mitigate the damage from crises like that at Camp Lejeune, we must prevent these crises from happening again.